NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA
What is African Nationalism? There has emerged as many definitions of African nationalism as there are scholars who have tried to define the word. However, the following descriptions are useful.
African nationalism is a desire of African people to terminate all foreign rules. Basically, nationalism is the political will of the people of Africa in opposition of foreign domination but in favour of African rule.
It represents African struggles against Western colonialism and imperialism (by Ndabaningi Sithole).
Nationalism is an expression of hostility to alien rule. In the colonial context, nationalism is anti-colonialism.
Colonialism, therefore, should be regarded as one of the major progenitors-ancestors of African nationalism, because any people subjected to alien rule will struggle to overthrow that rule.
It is also a desire to achieve political and economic freedom over all social and economic development, as well as the cultural revival of that national state (by Adu Boahen).
Nationalism is the feeling of national consciousness or awareness by the people that they are members of a nation state and desire freedom from colonial rule (by Michael Crowder).
THE PROCESS OF DECOLONIZATION
The process of decolonization or national liberation was fundamental in Africa, for it allowed African states to regain their independence, which they had lost for more than half a century.
The rise of African nationalism dates back to the period of colonial conquest and the imposition of colonial rule on one hand and primary African resistance against colonial rule on the other hand. But later, the intensification of exploitation stimulated the nationalistic struggle.
AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
Nationalism literally refers to the desire, love, or sprit for ones nation. In Africa the term nationalism has been used to signify the struggle of independence or self determination against foreign dominatio.
Nationalism in Africa is divided into two phases according to the period;
i. Nationalism before 1945
ii. Nationalism after 1945 before
1945.
ii. Nationalism after 1945 before
1945.
In the first decades of colonial rule most East African communities experienced only spasmodic contacts with the white man.
But by the mid of 1 920s, the activities of the government officials, missionaries and settlers were beginning impinge or to affect much more direct on the lives of many Africans.
Acts like land alienation, forced labor injustice and taxation now were affecting the Africans more.
But by the mid of 1 920s, the activities of the government officials, missionaries and settlers were beginning impinge or to affect much more direct on the lives of many Africans.
Acts like land alienation, forced labor injustice and taxation now were affecting the Africans more.
The struggle for self determination and resistance against the intruders begun in Africa immediately after the inception of colonialism in around 1890s.
The Africans started to resist colonial domination in the early time e.g. Abushiri and Bwana Hen in Tanganyika, Shona and Ndebele in Zimbabwe, Nama and Herero in Namibia. Some of the resistance was passive, while others collaborative and others active.
The period and the intensity in which the early African resistance occurred in various societies depended on the intensity of colonial activities and its impact.
For example as early as the 1 890s the people of Ghana had already forn1d the Gold. Coast Aborigine’s Right Protection Society which was to fight against laws which had been enacted to expropriate African land.
Also in 1920 the biggest welfare association in the region was the National Congress of British West Africa in Accra.
It was largely formed by the emerging African elites who wanted increased and effective representation in various organs of the state especially n the legislature.
FEATURES OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM BEFORE 1945.
i. Were spontaneous and ethnic based in nature /regional oriented.
It lacked national scope, every tribe was resisting alone and fight for tribal or regional interests. e.g. Kagera Coffee Growers, Kilimanjaro National Cooperation Union [K.N.C.U.] etc
It lacked national scope, every tribe was resisting alone and fight for tribal or regional interests. e.g. Kagera Coffee Growers, Kilimanjaro National Cooperation Union [K.N.C.U.] etc
ii. Were apolitical and lacked clear political focus, i.e. it lacked political elements they were fighting for social welfare of their society’s e.g. high wages, land alienation, and poor working conditions e.g. the kikuyu central association fought for the return of the lost land the restoration of kikuyu culture and rejection of missionary teachings which interfered with the culture of female circumcision which became common among the kikuyu in 1 920s which they regarded that the operation of clitorodectomy or female circumcision is a sign of woman hood.
iii.They were elites’ based mostly organized by those who were working for the colonial government in urban areas they organized themselves and begun to ask for their rights, the interests they represented were mainly related to the cooperation with colonialism. E.g. Harry Thuku a clerk in colonial government services in1922 who started the younger kikuyu association in Nairobi.
iv. Most of the resistances were easily suppressed by the colonialist in other words registered limited success e g the Maji Maji uprising, the Shona Ndebele uprising, the resistance of the Dembe people of Angola in 1907-10.
v. They lacked well organized and systematic form of resistance most of the uprising were sporadic in nature and generated internally rather than externally e.g. cattle confiscation, land alienation etc.
vi. It lacked the element or uniformity;- and effectiveness it was characterized by uprising in different areas and in different time.
vii. They were mostly motivated by the restoring of the pre-colonial social order, which had been over thrown by the colonialists.
CAUSE S OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA BEFORE 1945.
i. Political grievances They lost their independence to the foreigners thus nationalism to regain their lost independence. African rulers were thrown away and replaced them by foreign rulers who were imposed on the African that they detested and wanted to restate their traditional rulers.
ii. Economic grievances
iii. Forced labour to work on the colonial plantations to provide cheap labor any African who resisted was punished heavily.
iv. Imposition of heavy taxes to initiate money economy taxes like hut tax, poll tax, matiti tax were introduced as to force the indigenous to work in the plantation
v. Cattle confiscation as to deny African from engaging in other economic activities and resort on supplying cheap labour.
vi. Land alienation to keep African away from practicing their subsistence agriculture and begin to supply cheap labor in plantations.
vii. Loss of control of their trade like Long distance trade and Trans-Saharan trade and the introduction of the so called legitimate trade.
viii. Destruction of African agriculture. Which was self sustaining that based on the needs of Africa and in place cash crop plantation were introduced Social grievances.
ix. Colonial injustice and oppression like long working hour’s social abuses and separation of men from their families.
x. Heavy punishment like chopping off ribs of the Africans in case of the Congo colony under Belgium, corporal punishment in Tanganyika under Carl Peter Racism and segregation of Africans, by insulting them by their color and making them the third grade citizens on their own land .
xi. Destruction of African values and traditions and implanting foreign culture like religion language education and culture.
NATIONALISM AFTER 1945.
This refers to nationalistic activities that occurred after 1945, after the Second World War it was in this period that African was successful in their struggle at times is referred as modern nationalism.
It was characterized by the following:-
1. Well organized and planned by elites African leaders those were educated from colonial schools.
2. It was a national wide that it covered the whole nation through opening up many branches in the whole state both in the rural and urban areas .
3. It was led by the elites i.e. educated leaders who were focused e.g. Nyerere ,Kenyatta, Nkrumah, Obote It was political in origin i.e. they struggled for political independence of Africa.
4. It was dominated by both dialogue and armed struggle, where dialogue proved a failure.
5. It ware motivated by both internal and external factors unlike those before 1945 which were motivated by internal factors.
6. It led to the independence of some nations i.e. it was successful in getting independence for African nations.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF NATIONALSM AFTER 1945.
The factors that gave birth to African nationalism are of two kinds;
• Internal factors
• External factors
• External factors
INTERNAL FACTORS.
qn. Examine the internal factors for the rise of africa nationalism.
These were forces that were internally motivated, that generated within Africa societies that brought about nationalism in Africa. These included the following factors.
1. Formation of peasant cooperative union in rural areas to defend the interest and welfare of the farmers some associations were formed by the colonialists as to speed up the production and the marketing of cash crops as well as sensitizing peasants about cultivation, through their associations.
But later alone developed nationalistic feelings and turned against the colonialists using their association’s structures in rural areas. Some of the associations included The Kilimanjaro Cooperative Union, Victoria Cooperative, Buhaya Cooperative Union etc.
But later alone developed nationalistic feelings and turned against the colonialists using their association’s structures in rural areas. Some of the associations included The Kilimanjaro Cooperative Union, Victoria Cooperative, Buhaya Cooperative Union etc.
2. Intensive exploitation after the Second World War, in the colonies the colonizers wanted to revamp their ruined economies, which ware heavily damaged by the war, large scale colonization was carried out. New measures to increase production in the colonies and to reduce metro pole expenditure on the colonies were introduced like; Land alienation to establish more plantations for the white settlers, Forced labor to work on the colonial plantations as to increase out put. New, taxes like gun tax hut tax were introduced. Etc. Such exploitation awakened African to start fighting for their self determination thus rise of nationalism mace African aware.
3. Formation of independent churches .These were the churches that were lead by the Africans breaking away from main stream white churches, to challenge their misdeeds over the Africans, they addressed not only religious but also social political and economic grievances of the Africans such churches included.
Joseph Ejayi in West Africa, the Kikuyu Native church, the Watch tower church movement in Malawi 1906, the African national church in Tanganyika The people God and religion of Jesus in Kenya United native church in Cameroon etc Such churches openly criticized the colonialists and encouraged their followers to fight them thus the rise of African nationalism.
Joseph Ejayi in West Africa, the Kikuyu Native church, the Watch tower church movement in Malawi 1906, the African national church in Tanganyika The people God and religion of Jesus in Kenya United native church in Cameroon etc Such churches openly criticized the colonialists and encouraged their followers to fight them thus the rise of African nationalism.
4. Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary and colonial schools taught nothing but European based syllabus some African societies began their own schools, like among the kikuyu in Kenya Africans were taught African syllabus .this helped in educating Africans and developing the sprit of nationalism.
5. Rise of elites who had attained colonial education like Nyerere in Tanganyika, Nkrumah in Ghana, Kamuzu Banda in Malawi Abafemi Awolowo of Nigeria ,etc this education helped them to get used to the white language to get exposed to various struggle and liberation of the world, but on top of that some elites came from outside Africa the combination of both helped to the rise of nationalism through provision of leadership for nationalistic struggles.
6. Ghana independence in 1957, it was an example to stimulate other African nations to begin fight for their freedom so it as possible for them also to attain independence from their colonial powers.
7. The Italy against Ethiopia war of 1935- 1941 under Mussolini and Haile Selasie and Ras Imra increased the momentum of African nationalism Italy an industrialized nation was heavily and bravery resisted by an African nation Ethiopia this boosted, African confidence to wards their struggle for independence was defeated.
8. Formation of social welfare association these aimed to improve the working conditions of African workers discriminations and colonial abuses to the Africans such associations largely based in urban centers and comprised colonial civil servants like; The kikuyu central association in Kenya that was formed by Harry Thuku The railway territory civil association in Tanganyika, Tanganyika Territory Civil Service Association (T.T.C.S.A)which was formed by Martin Kayamba the peoples union in 1908 in Nigeria. Such association exerted more pressure on the colonialist to consider giving African independence which led to nationalism.
9. Mass media especially news paper played a big role in spreading awareness among the population in both rural and urban areas such news paper included Sauti ya TANU in Tanganyika The pilot and the comet in Nigeria.
10. Colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in facilitating the spread and the rise of African nationalism that’s why some historian do say that colonialism sown a seed of it own destruction, infrastructures like railways roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in rural and urban centers by spreading the massage of liberations in all parts of Africa.
EXTERNAL FACTORS
Qn.Discuss the external influences for rise of Africa nationalism.
These were factors that motivated nationalism but being generated from out side Africa such forces included.
1. The returning ex-soldiers who participated in the war on the side of their colonial masters assisting them as porters and security guards of army camps, this participation brought awareness since these soldiers were exposed to western democracy, freedom, and liberation massage some veterans like Dedan Kimathi who ware latter a leader of Mau-Mau in Kenya. Jonathan Okwiriri who became the president of the younger Kavirondo formed movements that directly opposed the colonialists.
2. Formation of U.N which replaced the league of nation where independent African states were allowed to participate as members it become an organization of all nations African and Asian nations through the UN opposed the colonialist and demanded for self determination, unlike during the league of nation where African colonies became mandatory colonies of European nations
3. The India Pakistan independences. These acted as an external pressure for the Africans to emulate both were British colonies that attain their independence in 1948 as one nation which later separated in two nations, African quoted such incidences as a negotiative tool to argue for there independence.
4. The Bandug conference of April 17th 1955 where Asians and Africans nations like South Africa Ghana Nigeria Egypt Libya met in Indonesia to discuss their problems which include colonialism and economic development, they emphasized solidarity, it was during this conference that. N.A.M. was formed in this conference.
5. Rise of communism in U.S.S.R the Second World War witnessed the expansion and consolidation of the communist bloc Russia begun to provide material and moral support for anti-colonial struggle for African e.g. it supported rebel groups in Angola and Namibia to fight colonialists.
6. Role of Marshal plan, this was initiated by George Marshall the prime minister of U.S.A, whereby he began giving loans to the war ruined European nations on conditions that they should decolonize in Africa arid Asian nations, by granting independence to those nations.
7. Open- door policy of U.S.A.
U.S.A introduced a policy of conducting business with Independent African states thus it begun requesting colonialist to give independence to the African countries so as to do business with US.
U.S.A introduced a policy of conducting business with Independent African states thus it begun requesting colonialist to give independence to the African countries so as to do business with US.
8. Formation of Pan-Africanize in 1900 by William Sylvester from the new world which later led to the formation of O.A.U an organization that united all African independent nations to helped in fighting for African independence.
9. The British labor party which assumed power in 1945 its policies were against colonialism which, they viewed as oppression of humanity and wastage of British tax payers money thus such ant colonial sentiments in Britain made many nationalistic movement to agitate for their immediate Independence.
10. The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation after world war two US became the chief supplier of war materials and the war did not affect her economy negatively made her to became a leading capitalist nation and begun to advocate for decolonization of African nations as a trick to compensate for not colonizing through establishment of neo colonialism to get market for her finished goods area of investment for her international corporations.
11. The after math of Second World War to the colonialist who incurred a lot of losses and could not continue with spending to the colonies so they were forced to grant some independence to some African states. But on top of the above some European powers adopted intensive exploitation to revamp their economies, which awakened many Africans to resist thus rise of nationalism
THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES
These were religious Christian’s churches which broke away from European churches because of dissatisfaction/discontent with Christian missionary churches .Some of their discontents included the following:
The European churches preached salvation equality of human being before God ,while African were segregated oppressed not allowed even to lead prayers, they were taken as third citizens
The European churches also involved in helping colonizers for land alienation taxation forced labor and administration which had no any relation with the teaching of the bible.
They also realized that European churches and colonialism were two sides of the same coin that the Christian missionaries were only to pave way for the colonization process of Africa as always its said that the “flag followed the cross”.
They advised Africans concerning political and economic problems by breaking their resistance e.g. through preaching biblical doctrines like the humble people are the blessed for them will enter the kingdom of God, forgive those who wrong you.
They intervened in African culture like girl circumcision among the kikuyu people in Kenya who vehemently detested the missionary activities.
That prompted them to start independent schools and begun to spread.
SOME OF THE INDEPENDENT CHURCHES FORMED INCLUDED;
i. Joseph Enjayi of West Africa. ii. The Kikuyu Orthodox church of
Kenya.
iii. The African National church of
Tanganyika.
iv. The Independent church
movement in Zaire by Simon
Kimbanga.
v. The Ethiopian church in Rhodesia. vi. The United Native Church of
Cameroon
vii. The Watch Tower Church Movement in Malawi 1906
Kenya.
iii. The African National church of
Tanganyika.
iv. The Independent church
movement in Zaire by Simon
Kimbanga.
v. The Ethiopian church in Rhodesia. vi. The United Native Church of
Cameroon
vii. The Watch Tower Church Movement in Malawi 1906
viii. The people of God and the Religion of Jesus Christ in Kenya.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES
• They were founded by Africans as to preserve African values and customs
• Most of the independent churches were formed in urban centers
• Initially they were apolitical but after 1945 they started to practice political activities and economic problems were addressed.
• Unlike the peasant cooperative associations which practiced tribalism the independent churches included all tribes without segregation.
• They used indigenous languages in their church services (local languages) e.g. Kisukuma.
• Most of the independent churches were formed in urban centers
• Initially they were apolitical but after 1945 they started to practice political activities and economic problems were addressed.
• Unlike the peasant cooperative associations which practiced tribalism the independent churches included all tribes without segregation.
• They used indigenous languages in their church services (local languages) e.g. Kisukuma.
THE ROLE OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES TO THE RISE OF NATIONALISM
1. They carried the Liberation message to the Africans during their church services which brought awareness among the local Africans
2. They condemned and criticized the white missionary churches as true agents of colonialism who came for their interest but their not godly people
3. They provided moral support and Devine guidance for the Nationalists.
4. They trained and groomed Nationalistic leaders in their churches were they learn how to speak to the congregations e.g Jomo Kenyatta, Nyerere, Kamzu Banda, Milton Obote, Samola Michael, Sam Nujoma. They also provided education for many African leaders through their Seminary schools.
5. They provided physical assistance to Nationalistic activities like transport and financial assistance, which contributed to gain their independence
6. They participated in forming of Nationalistic political parties which late alone became he dominant political parties that took over the independence
7. Also independent churches become centers for the meetings of Nationalist to discuss their plans or activities.
8.They also encouraged unity among the Africans to the struggle of self-determination. Using the church as a uniting, factor
PEASANTS COOPERATIVE UNION (ASSOCIATION)
BACKGROUND
These were initially established by the colonial government especially during the inter-war period, their primary aims were to promote peasant produce by searching for market and improvement of agriculture methods of farming, but latter alone turned into nationalism organs that begun to agitate for political demands. For example in northern Tanzania the Chagga who occupied the fertile slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro, had been the first East African people to take over the growing of cash crops. In 1925 a group of Chagga coffee growers formed the first modern peasant association yet to be seen in the rural areas.
These were initially established by the colonial government especially during the inter-war period, their primary aims were to promote peasant produce by searching for market and improvement of agriculture methods of farming, but latter alone turned into nationalism organs that begun to agitate for political demands. For example in northern Tanzania the Chagga who occupied the fertile slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro, had been the first East African people to take over the growing of cash crops. In 1925 a group of Chagga coffee growers formed the first modern peasant association yet to be seen in the rural areas.
The Kilimanjaro native planters association (K.N.P.A.) which had 10,000 members with in one year, its’ major aim was to provide efficient means of marketing coffee of local peasants but its’ leaders latter alone turned to be more political activists using the peasant association to promote nationalism.
Other peasant associations included; Bataka association formed in 1927 in Uganda, led by Clemens Kiiza. The Victoria cooperation union in Sukuma land Mwanza Central Kikuyu Association of 1928 whose general secretary was Jomo Kenyatta. Bahaya native growers in Tanganyika 1936. The Kilimanjaro native planters’ association (K.N.P.A) 1925 under Joseph Mwinyi with about 10,000members. Usambara native growers Association 1932. The Ukambani association in Kenya formed in the late 1930s. The Taita association. Kavirondo tax payers and welfare Association.
The Abangine Association in Ghana, and The Nigeria Youth Movement.
The Abangine Association in Ghana, and The Nigeria Youth Movement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PEASANTS COOPERATIVE UNION (ASSOCIATION)
1.They lacked National scope i.e. they were not National wide only based in regions e.g. the Bahaya based in Kagera region and Kilimanjaro native planters association based in K ilimanjaro region etc
2. They concentrated to demands of peasant welfare e.g. good price for cash crops, removal of middle men etc but not political.
3. It was dominated only in agricultural productive areas. In mining areas and labor reserves they did not exist.
4. Most of the members were peasant and non elites
5 It largely based on tribalism e.g. the Haya, Chaga and Sukuma and the Gandas etc.
OBJECTIVES OF PEASANT COOPERATIVE UNIONS.
1. Their primary aim was to provide an efficient of marketing the cash crops produced by the local growers, cash crops such as coffee, cotton, sisal. But latter alone the leaders of the association became increasingly involving into national politics.
2. To fight for the betterment of peasant welfare and resist the colonial government attempts of introducing agriculture improvement schemes. E.g. in 1938 the colonial government in Kenya wanted the Kamba people to de-stock of their cattle. The Ukambani peasant cooperation resisted it.
3. They were formed to fight against intensive exploitation like land alienation, forced labor, taxation oppression and through provision of low wages especially to the office boys and domestic servants. During the economic depression of 1930s the colonial government cut their wages by a third, the younger kikuyu association resisted the colonial government measures.
4. To stabilize and maintain agricultural prices by eliminating middle men who took the big share of their prices.
5. Also to struggle in breaking the settlers’ monopoly of cultivating certain, cash crops that visibly, enjoying supernormal profit especially during the postwar boom. the Africans had been prohibited to cultivate some cash crops, this was especially in the settlers economies
6. The aimed to promote agricultural output by searching for good methods of farming and providing their members with agricultural equipments, like hoes ,fertilizers, axes, pangas, etc through credit facilities and loans.
7. They also aimed to unite all the farmers for their general cause of fighting oppression and exploitation. And also to gain full control of their political and economic independence.
8. They also aimed to act as an adviser to the farmers, by instructing and advising about new methods of cultivation
9. It also acted as a representatives of boards for the peasants to the colonialist they reported all grievances the faced the peasants
THE ROLE OF PEASANT COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS TO THE RISE OF NATIONALISM.
1. It brought unity and solidarity between the peasants in rural areas and working class in urban centers to fight against colonialism; it was such solidarity between peasant and elites that led to independence It became a source of information feedback to the nationalistic movements who based in urban centers
2. They participated in strike and demonstration against colonialists which weakened the colonial economy that eventually led to the collapse of rule.
3. They provided leadership for political parties e.g. Jomo Kenyatta who was a general secretary of the peasant association in Kenya later alone become the leader of a political party called KANU in Kenya.
4. They provided moral support and material support like funds and manpower to the nationalistic to continue with the struggle to achieve independence Peasant cooperatives played a role of representing all the peasants’ grievances with one voice in the struggle against colonialism.
5. They supported the education of the students who came from poor families e.g. the Bukoba cooperative union in Tanganyika assisted very many needy students to acquire education which later was used in nationalism
6. They openly criticized the exploitation of the colonial marketing boards and always were ready to participant in any demonstration and strikes against the colonialist exploitation.
ROLE OF SECOND WORLD WAR TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
The Second World War which occurred 1939-1945 was a necessary evil to the rise of African nationalism.
The after math of Second World War witnessed vigorous nationalistic feelings in Africa which resulted into African independence.
Qn. Discuss the contribution of second world war to the rise of Africa Nationalism
The following were the contribution of Second World War to the rise of African nationalism.
1. The returning ex-soldiers (war veterans) brought awareness and consciousness. During the war African had worked along side with the Europeans, and found them little difference from them selves. They had fought against and killed Europeans in the name of freedom and democracy. They had observed European poverty in Europe and savagery in warfare. Africa with their range and level of experience would never come back at home as docile and subservient colonial labor force. Thus their returning had added more momentum in the process on nationalism.
2. The Second World War also helped in the changing of attitudes of Europeans them selves towards their colonies. Allied forces especially France, was made accurately aware of its indebtedness to Africa during the war. In order to ensure the continuing African support European administrators had been obliged to promise the social political and economic reforms would fall the allied victory in the war. At a free French conference held at Brazzaville in 1944 Gaulli had promised a ‘new deal’ for the subject of the French African territories. The promise of the Brazzaville was followed up in 1946 with the abolition of the hated indige ‘nat and the corvee labour system. Some European powers became reluctant to implement their promises. Thus rise of intensive nationalism.
3. The second war also contributed to the rise of African elites who played a big role in organizing and mobilizing Africans for large scale nationalism campaign. In British West Africa the war years saw educated African being increasingly brought in the high administrative positions and on the elected local councils. British colonial administrators begun to contemplate a time in distant future when African would be allowed some degree of self-governance few ex-service men actually played a significant role in the leadership of the ensuing independence movements. But their influence in undermining the aura and prestige of the European was considerable.
4. The economic hard ship of European nations after the war most of their economies were badly ruined that were not able to continue running vast over sea colonies of Africa and Asia they begun preparing them for self determinations, this explain the independence of India Pakistan Burma Egypt and Ghana immediately after world war two thus made other colonies to increase demanding for their independence.
.5 The Second World War brought intensive exploitation or large scale colonization of Africa. Most of the European countries wanted to revamp their ruined economies by increasing qualitative and quantitative production in the peripheries e.g. new taxes were introduced, land alienation, forced labor, forced cropping in west Africa, grow more campaign in Tanganyika such exploitation awakened the Africans to fight for their independence as to avoid exploitation.
6. Formation of UN came as a result of Second World War after the failure of the League of Nations. UN became an international body where independent African states were permitted as members; they voiced their grievances through UN and got support from Asian countries that had experienced a similar problem of colonialism this made the process of decolonization possible.
7. Rise of USSR as leading communist bloc the Second World War enabled USSR to consolidate and expand her influence in Eastern Europe and Asia as well as in Africa. It should be noted that the socialist ideology was against colonialism used her influence in UN by Appling her veto power to oppose the colonialism in Africa. On top of that USSR provided moral and material support to anti- colonial struggles in Africa and Asia.
8. The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation. The aftermath of world war two was witnessed with the rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation because of the role it played during the war; it was the chief supplier of raw materials and extended loans under her Marshall plan with conditionality of decolonizing African states by the Europeans and establishment of open door policy by USA, a policy which meant African nations to open up their doors to do business with USA.
9. The formation of NAM in April 1955 In Bandung Indonesia which was an afro-Asian conference that welcomed delegates from all parts of Africa and Asia who belonged to neither side of capitalism or communism. In this conference it was greed upon that Africans should struggle by all means to get their independence. It brought awareness and new force in Africa for indepen4ence struggle.
10. The Manchester conference of 1945 after world war two. It was called by pan-Africanist activities that invited all Africans from various parts of Africa and resolved that Africans should use all means peace or forceful to attain their independence.
THE ROLE OF USSR TO THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
The USSR adopted communism after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 under the leadership of Lenin and Stalin, USSR became a strong bloc. Her strength reached the climax after the Second World War which enabled her to consolidate and expand her communist ideology in the world. She helped the rise of African nationalism in the following ways; Ideological support: Many African nationalists adopted Marxist theory as a tool to fight and oppose the capitalist exploitation and oppression. As Karl Marx had advocated views that showed the possibility of doing away with the capitalist ideology. Many Africans were conscious to implement the idea and, this gave the Africans hope that they could at one be successful in their struggles thus the rise of African nationalism. Alternative for capitalism: socialism did provide the best alternative for capitalism as it clearly spelt out the ills of capitalism which were characterized with exploitation and oppression of man. Basing on this many Africans wanted to adopt an alternative that was fair to the common man for example Ujamaa villages in Tanganyika, common man’s charter in Uganda. Provided material and immaterial, support to many African nationalists’ e.g. military equipments and military Skills. It provided scholarships to many African nationalists to go and. study in Russia who later became leaders of independent Africa. It used her veto power in UN to oppose colonialism in Africa and used UND to support African struggle. USSR established class alliance with the revolutionary forces in Africa which gave confidence and determination to fight capitalism. Russia supported military and armed struggle to liberate them V selves through the barrel of the gun through the provision of equipments and training African man power to carry on the fighting The USSR was against imperialism and extended sympathy to the African and Asian and she was ready to support nationalist movement to get rid of the colonialists THE EMERGENCE OF THE USA AS A LEADING IMPERIALISTS POWER AND ITS ROLE FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM USA emerged as a leading imperialist power after world war two why? Because both wars first and second war ware not fought in the land of USA thus no destruction that occurred that might have affected industrial production. During the war USA became the major suppliers of military equipment and food for many European nations during the war which made her to emerge as richest nation after the war, on the addition to the above through the Marshall plan that was launched by USA prime minister George Marshall where USA begun to provide loans, to the war toned European nations charging high interest rate made USA to emerge as a leading capitalist nation. Decline of Britain as a leading capitalist nation after world two due to mass destruction and high expenditure during both wars; because both wars affected Britain very badly that could not regain her economical status back this enabled USA to rise as a leading capitalist nation. There fore after rising as a leading capitalist nation USA begun to advocated for decolonization process in Africa, for her own economic Interest, the methods applied in the decolonization of Africa included the following, USA championed the struggle for African nationalism through UNO by high fighting the Evil of colonialism to African countries Giving moral support to African nationalist parties struggling for Independence through her veto power. Providing loans to support economic venture in African countries to colonizing power at conditions for decolonization REASONS FOR THE DECOLONIZATION IN AFRICA BY USA AFTER 1945. Back ground. It should be born in mind that USA was a colony of Britain which struggled for her independence in 1 770s and got the independence in 1776 from Britain, USA inherited all the wealth which included slaves’ plantations and the industries, USA began to industrializes in 1 880s, the first and second world war made USA the leading industrialized nation in the world, which made her to begin demanding raw materials, market and area for investment, since it had no colonies in Africa it began to campaign for decolonization of Africa and Asia, so as to establish neo colonialism. It uses human rights as a pretext to achieve her military and economic interest in the colonized and independent world Had no colonies in Africa Therefore she wanted African countries to be free so that she can share the benefits of African economically under establishment of the new form of colonialism called, neo- colonial relation They wanted to establish open door policy so as to establish direct trade with Africa. To exploit the market for their industrial out put Independent African states would be a better ground for USA investment for there surplus capita1 thus the establishment of international corporation companies. To spread capitalist ideology in the Africa and to check on the spreading of socialism in Africa USA wanted places to establish her military bases, in every part of the world including Africa so as it can maintain her military status-quo. THE GHANA INDEPENDENCE Ghana was a British colony originally and it was known as Gold Coast. It began her nationalism in 1868 after the formation of the Fante confederation. In 1920 a modern political party the national congress of West Africa was formed but with little success Of independence. In 1940 another party called united Gold Coast foundation was founded under J.B. Danguah and Nkrumah as her general secretary. Ghana was the first country in Africa under the Sahara to attain her independence. Factors that helped Ghana to get her independence earlier than other African nations included the following; The political party that took over power the conventional people’s party[CCP] enjoyed overwhelming support in the cocoa growing because of her clear policies and implemental programs that would serve the people of Ghana. Lack of tribalism in Ghana also played significant role in avoiding disunity in the struggle for independence Also Ghana had developed reasonable social infrastructures that were used by many nationalists in carrying out their campaign reaching in a very corner of the country. Ghana had no white settlers that would have been an obstacle for the struggle of their self determination thus the path for independence was smooth English was a common language which many Ghanaians used as a symbol for unity against the colonialists Leadership Ghana had a strong leadership of Kwame Nkrumah who devoted all her time and life, for the national cause Also external factors like the independence of India Pakistan and the rise of USSR in 1917 after the Bolshevik revolution Factors for the C.P.P. to Win Independence for Ghana 1. The message and slogans of C.P.P. (e.g. “Independence now”) was well received by most Ghanaians. 2. The party concerned itself with the genuine social and economic problems of the people. 3. The party exploited the widespread Cocoa Riots of 1948 and reinforced anti-British feelings among the masses. 4. The position of the C.P.P. was strengthened by the creation of the Cocoa Purchasing Company in 1952, which spread the message of the C.P.P. among farmers and peasants. 5. The good leadership of one of the ablest sons of Africa, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, was a major contributing factor. 6. The weakness of the opposition parties like the National Liberation Movement. ROLE OF GHANA INDEPENDENCE The independence of Ghana in 1957 brought new impetus in the struggle for African independence; Ghanaian independence had a great influence on African nationalism in the following ways. Ghana became the headquarters of the ant colonial groups of Africa following her independence all issues pertaining independence in Africa were discussed in Accra Ghana. Ghana provided material support like man power and funds to many African nations who were struggling for self determination from their colonial masters. Radio Accra in Ghana became the mouth piece of Africans to voice anti-colonial feelings and to mobilize support from inside and out side Africa. Nkwame Nkrumah became the leader o pan - Africanism and in 1958 a conference was help in Ghana to discuss the way forward of African independence. Ghana became a model to other African countries to emulate. This made many African countries to go for vigorous campaigns for against colonialism and get sovereignty like that of Ghana. Nkrumah the president of Ghana after independence held all African trade unions in 1959 with the aim to unity all African states into a confederation, such an idea increased momentum for many Africans to fight for independence. Ghana as an independent country exerted more pressure on French domination on West Africa to stop their excess over the Africans which increased the Africans to demand for self determination. PAN-AFRICANISM: Definition Pan—Africanism is the expression of desire for African unity; it’s at some time an expression of sense of unity between all people whose ancestors originally came from Africa i.e. the Africa in Africa and the African in the Diaspora. As such assume the common brotherhood of black people every where in North America West Indies. Indeed the birth of the idea. Back ground Pan- Africanism had its roots out side Africa because of the descendants of the African the Negro slaves in the new world who felt had been made home less by their transfer to the foreign countries and subjection to alien culture they felt that they did not belong to, they felt themselves as the orphans of Africa, alien and strangers in the world of white people who were chiefly interested in their labour only to work in the plantations and hardly interested at all in their personality as men, they felt to them selves as black out cast robbed of their dignity and with no claim of being of the same value and equal insight of man. Pan Africanism was founded by William Sylvester Trinidad lawyer in 1900, who convened the first pan Africanist conference there were few representative from Africa but a big number came from America and the west Indies others were tudent from London among them was Dr William E.burghradt Dus Bois an outstanding negro scholar and prolific writer who later became “the father and the prophet of pan Africanism” was born in USA 1868 and died in Ghana 1963 at the ripe old age of 95. He was the founder of national association for advancement of colored people [NAACP] He also led four pan Africanism conference 1919 in Paris attended with 57 delegates 1921 London and Brussels, in 1923 in Lisbon Portugal and the fourth was in new York in 1927 the massage of all those conferences were that “the habit of democracy should encircle the all world “the emphasis was inter—racialism and justice The major plan of action for pan Africanism was to bring all the black people of African origin under one umbrella of pan-Africanism i.e. black Africa in the New World and in Africa. OBJECTIVES OF PAN-AFRICANISM • To unite all black people in the Diaspora and in Africa. • To liberate African slaves from slavery in the new world in order to make them free citizen • To improve the economic status of Africa so that they can be equalized with the European people. • To create awareness among the Africans and instill the sprite of Africanism in them to remove the inferior complex of the Africans to Europeans. • To fight colonialism in Africa so as the African can get their self determination. • It was also their objective to fight for civil rights of African slaves m the new world like freedom of movement, owning property, worship etc. CONTRIBUTION OF PAN-AFRICANISM FOR THE RISE OF NATIONALISM AFRICAN CONTINENT. It brought solidarity, unity among the Africans in their struggle for self determination. It led to the formation of OAU/AU a body which was responsible to fight for African countries which were still under colonial domination. Pan Africanism brought awareness among the Africans to fight for their independence. Pan Africanism also acted as a body to represent the Africans in world politics. Pan Africanism provided leadership in many nationalistic struggles in Africa e.g. Nkrumah who became a leader of pan Africanism; Provided moral and financial support to the Africans who were struggling for their independence. MANCHESTER CONFERENCE The Manchester conference was the conference that was convened by pan Africanits. It was regarded as a turning point in the history of pans Africanism because of the outcome of the conference which included the following: WHY IS TURNING POINT (WATERSHED) It was during the Manchester conference where by the leading participants were no longer Negroes of the new world, but a big number of Africans from home land countries and organizations sent delegates like Nkrumah, Kamuzu Banda, Kenyatta, Peter Abraham Azikiwe was him self prevented from attending the conference but his idea and encouragement were of great importance, It was during the Manchester conference that the headquarters of pan Africanism were shifted from America to Africa under the leadership of Nkrumah following the independence of Ghana. It was in this conference that colonialism was condemned and it was declared that by all means either peaceful or forceful Africans should get their independence. They developed a slogan that “if European for Europeans then Africa is for Africans”. It was during the Manchester conference that a letter was drafted by the delegates warning all the imperialist countries who were committing excesses to the Africans like king Leopold was seriously warned and asked to stop it. It was during this conference that demanded education of Africans and progressive participation in African governments. In this pan African conference it constrained racial consciousness among Africa and removed inferior complex of the Africans to the Europeans in political and cultural values. It was during the Manchester conference that pan-Africanism drafted a charter demanding the independence and implementation of civil rights in the colonies especially the human rights of the Africans in the colonies. It was in this conference where all people from African origin demonstrated unity, solidarity and cooperation. This brought awareness and consciousness to the black races to fight for their rights. FORMS OF AFRICAN LIBERATIONS It should be noted that, the colonial state did not intend to create a sense of national hood among the colonized people. Its major aim was to undermine all ethnic or regional loyalties. There was very little feeling of national hood among the colonial subjects. Almost every body thought of him self as belonging to a certain ethnic group or region. The colonialists had different sentiment about granting independence to African states it should be put clear that for the bourgeoisie in the metro pole were interested in maintaining colonial exploitation, but they differed in the best way to do it. They were three types of different opinions how to maintain this among the colonialists. The liberal who realized that the only way to silence ant colonial struggle was to was through reform of granting flag independence to the colonized subjects thus between 1950 and 1960 liberal government of France and Britain began to grant flag independence. That is why the form of liberation were peaceful The conservatives thought that maintaining the status-quo was the best way to preserve the capitalist interests, thus when ever these people were in power the question of granting independence to Africa never rose, and this was especially in Portugal thus the form of liberation in such Portuguese colonies were different. The third opinion was that of the settlers their interest crushed with those of the bourgeoisie in the metro pole. If the neo colonial government, under black skinned leadership, believed that there interest could not be maintained no matter how neo colonialism was. If the worse came to worse they seized power as in case of U.D.I in 1965 in then Rhodesia. FORMS OF LIBERALIZATIONS They were four types/methods that Africans applied in their struggle to liberate themselves from the colonial domination, a) Liberation by constitution/ dialogue/ peacefully. This involved intensive negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists e.g. the political independence of Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda, Zambia etc. all applied negotiation or peaceful means to get their independence. b)Liberation by revo1ution This was the type of liberation which involved complete overthrow of the existing political system. This existed in colonies where independence was given to the minority at the expenses of the majority, the case in point is in Zanzibar where minority Arabs were granted independence by the British which prompted the majority blacks to make a revolution in 1964, and replaced with another new political system that is supported by the masses. It took place even Egypt and Libya. Liberation by revolution is always sudden and involves blood shed. c) Liberation by armed struggle/arbitration: This was conducted In the situation where peaceful means failed and the imperialist were reluctant to negotiate or to give independence to the Africans. In such situation the Africans picked up arms to fight the imperialists by force as a method to achieve their independence it involved bloodshed use of guerrilla warfare. For example in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola, South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique d) Combination of constitution and armed struggle: These liberations combined both methods. Firstly the Africans resorted to armed struggle as a way to achieve their independence and then applied dialogue/peaceful means to solve the problems of their independence, this happened in Kenya and Zimbabwe. FACTORS THAT DETERMINED THE FORMS OF DE-COLONISATION/LIBERATION. Existence of settler in the colonies that had a number of white settlers like Kenya Zimbabwe where by they had made some developments in form of investment the colonialist were not willing to surrender their wealth to Africans and were not sure of their future incase Africans take over the government, thus giving independence was very difficult. This made the Africans to apply armed struggle as the means of getting their independence The nature of the colony. Those colonies that were regarded as overseas provinces of the colonial nation and view them as their mandatory land this was mostly to colonial masters like Portugal and France in such cases the colonialist were not ready to grant independence until the African decide to use the barrel of the gun to give independence; therefore armed struggle was the only solution for example in Kenya, Angola, Mozambique and South Africa. The economic strength of the colony. In those colonies were development was very high and colonial investment was huge like South Africa and Zimbabwe the colonialists were not able to grant independence to the Africans in a peaceful way, the only solution remained to apply forceful means. The financial economic position of the colonial power. Many colonies that belonged to Portugal applied armed struggle because Portugal economic position was not good highly depended ion Africa colonies for domestic development so she was un willing to give independence. The status of the colony those colonies that were under the trust ship of UN managed to achieve their Independence easily through peaceful means because of the pressure from UN and USA, like Tanganyika got her independence early enough than other east African sister nations of Kenya and Uganda, but those who were mandatory colonies could not get their independence so easily thus armed struggle The minority rule like UDI in Zimbabwe and the white racist regime in SA where by the minority white settlers declared the unilateral independence, in case of Zanzibar where minority Arabs where given independence by the British to the expense of the majority Africans on the islands this also caused armed struggle through a revolution Existence of peasant cash crops; colonies that had developed peasant cash crops like, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, and Tanganyika, achieved their independence through peaceful means, the colonialist could not delay this independence after realizing that they can continue exploiting their resources through neo colonialism and they had nothing to lose in granting independence The nature of reaction the African had towards the colonialist, also determined the form of liberation, those African societies who were very collaborative to the colonialist and forged class alliance with the colonialist in most cases dialogue or peaceful means were applied to decolonize e.g. in Uganda the Ganda were used as sub imperialist to Other areas of Uganda to spread the colonial rule so independence was through peaceful means in Uganda as to pave. way for the Ganda to dominant other tribes. Existence Of wealthy especially minerals like gold diamond sliver, industries, well developed social over heads like in south Africa, Kenya, independence could not be given easily why because the colonialist were not ready to leave such wealthy un exploited armed struggle became the only solution’ in case of such situations and on the other side in colonies where development was minimal no infrastructure independence was easily given through peaceful means e.g. in Tanganyika . WHY MOST OF THE AFRICAN STATES RESORTED ‘TO ARMED STRUGGLE AFTER 1945? It’s true that armed struggle became dominant after 1945 especially in Zimbabwe, Kenya’ Angola, and South Africa etc as compared to other forms of liberation this was due to the following facts that accelerated the application of armed struggle among such factors include the following, Military assistance from USSR. After 1945 USSR consolidated her strength to the zenith it was ant-colonialism and a sympathizers to African ant-colonial struggles .It was ready to provide military support and moral to liberate the Africans from colonialism, thus military struggle due to military assistance of USSR. Manchester conference. During the Manchester the major agenda of the conference was to liberate Africans by all means peaceful or force, this gave courage to the Africans to use force where the colonialists became reluctant to grant independence. Role and influence of the ex soldiers. The war veterans of Second World War came back with military skills which they had acquired during the war it were these skills that encouraged very many African nationalists to apply force to overthrow the colonialists who were not ready to grant independence to Africans. The support from U.N Under U.S.A and USSR were ant-colonialism and supported the African nationalist struggle to use all means to get rid of colonialism. Failures of other methods. Other methods like peaceful means and constitutional failed, the armed struggle became as the last resort for getting independence from the colonialists. Impact of India and Pakistan independence. The independence of Asian countries especially Pakistan and India was a big challenge for the Africans to emulate, they used all means including armed struggle to get independence. Influence of pan Africanism. Especially after shifting her headquarters from the new world to Africa .The plan of action of pan Africanism was to liberate African nations by all means. The un willingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Especially Portugal and British colonies that , were not willing to grant independence. The Africans resorted the use of force. Influence of front line states. That provided military and man power support to the ant-colonial struggles in Africa e.g Tanganyika during the struggle in South Africa and Zimbabwe Intensive exploitation after world war two. It awakened Africans against the colonialists who had increased exploitation of Africa resources as to revamp their ruined economies, this made Africans to use all means to liberate themselves. Emergence of cold war after 1945. This was the struggle between USSR and USA, every bloc wanted to win more countries in Africa as to spread their political ideologies of socialism or capitalism, this witnessed the giving up of weapons to fight the colonialists. NATIONALISM IN TANGANYIKA THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE. Nationalism in Tanzania can be traced as early as the early days of colonial penetration under the Germany rule when they threatened their independence. Thus for example, Abushiri and Bwana Hen, the Zigua led the first resistance against the Germany at the coast in 1888-89, then Mkwawa against the Germany from 1891 tilll898 and finally came the Maji-Maji wars in1905-97. Although the Eurocentric historians have portrayed the early nationalistic movements as back-word looking, leading their people from modernization and from God-sent blessings of colonialism; recent historiography has revealed continuity between the early leaders of opposition to colonialism and more recent leaders of mass nationalism. About fifty years ago, V.1 Lenin described such resistance as national war or national rebellion. These early resistances showed a symbol o great patriotism. For example Maji-Maji, Mkwawa and Abushiri are hailed as national Heroes in modem Tanzania monuments have been built for their memorials and honors. During the interwar period some modern nationalistic political parties were formed, namely the TTCSA, TAA, and the TAWCA they developed crucial mass nationalism that begun to agitate for Nationalism after 1945. Of all parties that were started it’s only the TAA that survived the onslaught colonial administration in the interwar period, it kept the nationalistic sentiments in Tanzania a live. In 1945 the TAA political party begun to expand country wide and to campaign for mass support from the rural areas of Tanzania by 1948 the branches grew to 39 and membership had spiraled to 1, 780. It gave birth to the Tanzanian African National Union (TANU) in 1950s mainly urban oriented and trans-tribal in nature and non religious Tanganyika got her independence in 1961 under the leadership of Mwl. J.K. Nyerere it was the first country in East Africa to get independence. It was formerly a Germany colony but latter alone it was given to Britain under the trust ship of UN. It got her independence through application of diplomacy led by J.K Nyerere and Oscar following the transformation of TAA to TANU in July 7th 1954. OBJECTIVES OF TANU • To struggle for self determination of Tanganyika from the colonial master Britain To fight for African freedom against the injustice and inequalities of the colonialist • To promote unity and solidarity among the people of Tanganyika and fight against regionalisms and tribalism. • To abolish all forms segregations among the masses and to promote development in the of country • It also aimed at helping the workers to fight their rights through forming trade unions of the workers so as can defend the workers rights. WHY TANGANYIKA GOT HER INDEPENDENCE EARLIER THAN OTHER EAST AFRICAN COUNTRIES? In Tanganyika there were no European white settlers, like in Kenya and other parts of Africa who were not willing to grant independence to the Africans, because they did not trust them in case they assume power. Tanganyika contained influential minorities of Europeans and Asians. The number involved was not large enough to bring obstacle in the path of national independence only 23,000 European among whom only few hundreds could properly be regarded as settlers and the number of Asians was 87,000. In Tanganyika internal problems like tribalism and religious differences were very minimal. This was a sovereign advantage over her neighbors, the country’s population was made up with large number of ethnic groups but none of the tribe was large enough unlike the Ganda or the Kikuyu-to offer a serious threat to its neighbors by seizing power at the central and monopolizing jobs and development grants for its own advantage. That would have brought internal disputes struggle or disunity. So it was simple for them to unite the masses for self determination Tanganyika was not mandatory colony like Uganda or Kenya it was under the trust ship of UN given to Britain. As a trust territory Tanganyika was subjected to measure of supervision by the United Nations. A situation which made it impossible for the British government to entirely disregard pressure exerted by international opinion. Thus the independence of Tanganyika was easily influence by United Nations Swahili language played a big role to unite various ethnic groups Swahili had came to be widely spoken throughout the country, thus providing Tanganyika with an indigenous lingua franca, an advantage possessed by no other East African nation. It was rather less difficult to build up a sense of national unity in Tanzania than any other East African country. TANU political party which took over the power lacked serious opposition from other to political parties which would have delayed the independence The superb leadership of Mwl J.K Nyerere and Oscar Kambona also played a big role in achieving independence in Tanganyika earlier than other nations he was a simple man approachable democratic with high sprite of patriotism for his nation. The effect of Mau-Mau in Kenya prompted governor Richard of Britain to grant independence in Tanganyika immediately fearing that a similar situation may happen also in Tanganyika Unlike Uganda and Kenya were most of the political parties were very much affiliated to religion and tribes, TANU in Tanganyika had no any religious or tribal attachment it was a party for national unity In Tanganyika the colonialists did not invest heavily in infrastructures or agriculture which they might have feared to lose, in case Of independence like Kenya were a lot of colonial investment had been invested. And on top of that Tanganyika had been viewed as the most economically back word country the least advanced in the field of education as compared to her sister Nations. TANU as major political party had never been banned by the colonial government it was able to operate freely with out any hindrance unlike KANU in Kenya. This was very significant in achieving her goals of independence. PROBLEMS FACED BY TANU IN HER STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. The colonial bureaucracy was a stumbling-block, when it came at registering T.A.NU branches national wide. As soon as it was learned that TANU had replaced TAA the legislation governing the operation of political parties was amended aiming at debarring TANU activities, the government technically put a delay tactic in registering the branches of TANU, with the same agenda of checking the spread of TANU and its influences. The colonial government first applied simple repression, banning of TANU activities in disaffected areas and the second tactic which was applied mostly in French colonies was the creation of colonial government sponsored political parties, the United Tanganyika party (U.T.P) designed to up hold the cause of mult-racialism. But both methods proved a failure when the election was held early in 1959. For the thirty members of the legislative council, ten for each race, TANU won an overwhelming victory. Colonial government sabotage by closing TANU’ s branches and banning its activities .This tactic was used by colonial government to check th influence of TANU e.g. in Sukuma land rural radicalism and TANU activities had given colonial regime threats, after branches were closed of Tanga , Dodoma, Iringa and Kondoa Irangi. The colonial policy of divide and rule, which wanted to divide the people of Tanganyika on ethnicity lines, e.g the meeting of 1957 Governor Twining attempted to drive division between traditional rulers and members of nationalist movement. This was a very big obstacle for TANU to forge unity between the masses. The All Muslim National Unity of Tanganyika (AMNUT) was a stumbling block in the path of independence after petitioning to the colonial government to delay the independence of Tanganyika until the education gap between the Moslems and Christians is bridged The defection of ANC from mainstream TANU, led by Zuberi, Mtemvu, in 1958 in Tabora they defected from TANU and formed their one party, this move to a certain extent it weakened TANU as a party ,this new party was even able to get some legislative council in election of 1958 and 1960 in Tanga and lake Victoria area The opposition from church missionary society, who barred their followers from involving into active politics that would be regarded as disobedient to the church. This affected very many members of TANU who were Christians. Lack of education for most TANU members .The colonial government prohibited the civil servants from joining active politics and were the only small elite who were educate that would have helped the party. Most of the party members were comprised by a big numbers of peasants Transport and communication structures were too poor to assist TANU in mobilizing the masses in the vast Tanganyika mainland, some roads were impassable during rain season Lack of political awareness among the masses, most of the followers of TANU was peasants who were in rural areas who, did not know the objectives of the political party and their financial assistance to the party was very minimal NATIONALISM IN ZANZIBAR Background. The social structure in the post — slavery Zanzibar society was highly racial based. After the formal abolition of slavery in 1897 the Zanzibar society had just gone into feudal socio economic stratification which based on racial segregation. The British were on top of the hierarchy the Arabs followed the lowest class wares the Africans these were mostly poor and squatters on Arab cloves plantation. In the next hierarchy after the Europeans were the Arabs, these were sub-sections within the Arab community which included the relatively less, rich shih iris from Yemen and Mangos from Oman ,they ran small business such as shops and other retail trade ventures mostly in rural areas. The Arabs family shared both political, economical and administration powers with the British colonialists. Other Oman clans of high class such as the Mazrui and Miskury they held some decision making position in the local authority administrative network and supervisory roles they dominated the middle ranking administrative load of the civil service. They owned big plantation, real estates and the large business. Arabs of Oman origin were favored by British colonialists and were deliberate given senior administrative posts in to prepare them to run the government after independence; they wanted Zanzibar to develop as an Arab and not as an African state. The third structure was that of the Indian community which enjoyed the considerable social status and influence. They were big merchants who monopolized the exports and imports of trade. They helped senior economic advisory position in the government and dominated the whole financial sector. The lowest that of oppressed African majority .These were mostly poor landless peasant who were mostly squatters in Arab owned plantations where they provided cheap labor for their survival .Others were employed as domestic servant in rich Arabs and Indian houses .They were denied access to education that were not given the best employment opportunity the could secure in the civil service. In the colonial Zanzibar the Africans were next to none in personality they were regarded as inferiors. As some afro- centric historian once lamented in his writings that; “It is true that Africans were intellectually, morally and personality inferior to the European, Zanzibar Africans just like pendulum clocks who needs constant reminding and reprimands, they have been like children who have been taught Arab manners. I think it is evident that most of these Africans were and hypocrites” [Robinson R, and Gallagher in Africans and the historians. The education system was given racial lines to serve the goals of preparing for public administration, Indian for commercial and financial control Africans for sub service. More degrading statements were made by the colonialists revealing the mentality concerning Zanzibar Africans that they were inferior in all aspects to the Europeans and to the Arabs. Example; Population structure of Zanzibar before independence AFRICA RACE Africans made 76% of the Zanzibar population in 1948 non of them owned a plantation of 3000 hectares and more over in education they accounted only 39% of the lower primary education and 3% of secondary education Africans in Zanzibar by 1964 were immigrants who went there in three phases: during slave trade 1 840-1 870s during colonialism 1891-1963 and during clove harvesting. THE SHIRAZI RACE. These were of the mixed blood [shiraz, Africans and Arabs] .The shiraz Arabs settled in Zanzibar since the 1st century .They came from Persia, Iran and Iraq. The indigenous of Pemba and Unguja before 12th century were black .The Shiraz intermarriage with the black Africans and have mixed blood race .By 1964 the Shiraz identify themselves as; Tumbatu Shiraz and Pemba Shiraz .These were more Arabs in features than Africans and the Hideous —Shiraz who ware more Africans in features than Arabs .They mixed easily with the African race by 1964. THE ARABS RACE, These were few Arabs who immigrated to Zanzibar since 1940.They were the ones who introduced clove plantations and slave trade in the islands of Zanzibar THE INDIAN RACE These few in number and were chiefly merchants who lived in Zanzibar they were allowed to conduct business the by British colonialists to trade in Zanzibar. THE 1963 INDEPENDENCE CONFERENCE The conference involved the government and the opposition parties held at Lancaster House in London from 20-24 September 1 963.It was agreed that Zanzibar should become full independent 1 0th December 1963. On 1 0th December 1963 the British government declared the independence of Zanzibar and handed sovereignty to the sultan hence ensuring Arab domination to the land. This is how the efforts towards the independence of Africans came to unsatisfactory. Alternative measures had to be taken by the victimized African majority hence the Revolution of 1964. THE ZANZIBAR PEOPLES REVOLUTION. BACKGROUND The Zanzibar revolution is not an isolated incident. It was due the continuous humiliation of the black African ever since the first black was taken on the island as a slave, by definition a political revolution can be defined as a total overthrow of an existing government in any country or state by those who were previously subjected to it. A political revolution may be gradual or sudden. hut the most important of all it should leave ever lasting impact in that particular society, that serves the fundamental difference between a revolution and a mere political change. British were preparing to decolonize African states thus they allowed the people of Zanzibar to form political parties. Political parties emerged based on races e.g. ZNP Zanzibar Nationalist party for Arabs, African Association for African only, Shiraz Association of Shiraz only later in 1955 Shiraz split into two. Hadimu Afro shiraz party and The Tumbatu shiraz and Pemba peoples party for shiraz only. The most likely immediate causes of the revolution of the Zanzibar revolution were numerous that included the humiliative manner the Arabs treated the Africans who were taken as slaves despite the factor that were the majority in the islands of Zanzibar but the most touching was the three failures of the people of Zanzibar to get the government they wanted, created disenchantment with constitution means. The decision of the old regime, only three weeks after a new constitution came into effect, to begin suppressing the opposition, seemed to prove there was no hope to change through lawful means. THE ELECTION BEFORE INDEPENDENCE Before independence 1963 there were three elections Period A.S.P Z.N.P Z.P.P.P Jan1961 40% 35% 17% June 1961 49% 35% 13% July 1963 54% 20% 16% But the British wanted to hand over independence to the majority privileged race [Arabs] on 12/12/1963 Z.P.N became a ruling party and Sultan was made head of state. The A.S.P members the majority regarded that independence as an Arab independence. The A.S.P had tried to bring democratic majority by the use of ballot box without success, the only alternative was the revolution. Within a month after the Arab independence of 12/12/1963 new Arabs government introduced oppressive measures which included the following; All African schools were closed down and therefore all African teachers were ordered to leave Zanzibar. A.S.P was banned and leaders escaped to Dar –es- Salaam before being arrested, African trade unions were banned. All policemen from the mainland were dismissed and expelled from Zanzibar The new government recruited new policemen within a month. Due to the above factors A.S.P leaders organized the revolution in Dar- es- Salaam with the assistance of Okello a Ugandan from northern Uganda who had migrated in Zanzibar during colonial; era, as a colonial worker. He captured the armory at Zanzibar city with the assistance of other woifkers of African origin in Zanzibar and main land Tanganyika using ordinary weapon and managed to over throw the Arab minority regime. WHY ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION WAS NECESSARY Economic Marginalization of the African majority, Africans were mainly squatters who made, a living by selling their labor to the landlords and subjected to extreme exploitation Africans had no access to the major means of production Economic inequality, on the Arabs owned land, the Indians controlled finance, the Europeans controlled trade, the Africans owned nothing such a situation made the revolution necessary to occurred. Zanzibar an African or Arab state? The revolution was also caused by the desire of Arab rulers and British colonialists to make Zanzibar an Arab state in 1962 which the majorities African were not ready to be Arab rise on their own African soil thus the revolution. Deprivation of black African from Education. Despite the government’s role to provide suitable elementary education for all people, the Africans continued to suffer from inequality of education system. They were not catered like the other races which made them unsatisfied with the regime thus the revolution Segregation in the other social services. Africans were also segregated in health services, housing and water supply. Even in civil services African hold lower ranks unlike the Arabs and the Indians Deception Africans were divided along the lines of religion .Z.P.P campaign slogan used to call Africans to join Z.N.P because they claimed that the party was recognized by God. Cultural and religion It was the Arab culture and religion that became dominated and recognized from that of the African culture and religious beliefs. Act of intimidation After unexpectedly loosing the 1957 election to Z.N.P it decided to employ various act of intimidation to force Africans to join them i.e. the 1958 strikes at the docks led to mass uprising It initiated a strong campaign against them Segregation in the social Association As the wind of struggle for political independence which was in full in the continental African swept the island Zanzibar in the mid 1950.The social association underwent complex transformation into political parties .Africans were opposed politically by the ruling class. The emergence of John Okello from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and worked periodically as painter he was an official of ASP of Pemba island he joined a revolutionary army in 1961 he played a big role in over throwing the Arab regime. Poor working condition and low wages of Africans after 1963 that could not make them to meet their basic needs of life and despite that were heavily taxed by the Arab government. WHY THE REVOLUTION WAS SUCCESSFUL? The disunity within the ruling party of Z.N.P gave the revolutionists to capitalize on it and managed to attain easy success The poor political organization and weak military, structures of the Arabs also paved way for the revolution to occur. The good organization and plan of the leaders of the revolution who kept their secret with out breaching it that caught the Arab government by surprise The role played by general Okello a man with great determination skilled tactician this helped him to organize the revolution with few ill equipped military men that managed to over throw the Arab government The taking by storm of the Zinawi armory and police station at Mtoni also accelerated the revolution to success The fact that the revolution took place took place when the government officials and leaders of the regime were busy with Ramadan festival it enabled the revolution to be successful SIGNIFICANCE/IMPACTS/CONSOLIDATION OF THE REVOLUTION Having seized power with an astonishing ease, Okello and his associate were confronted with the task of forming a government. They decided to form a “revolutionary council” made up of prominent members not only from the Afro-Shiraz party but also of the Umma the recently founded, partly Arab party which was emphatically Marxist in its policy statements. Soon afterwards Okello disappeared from the scene and Abedi Karume, the veteran leader of the ASP, who was to die at the hands of mysterious assassins eight years later, emerged as the dominant personality in the island. The revolutionary government rapidly announced the number of progressive measures which included the following. Three months after the revolution the revolutionary council agreed to the establishment of a union government with the neighboring Tanganyika to be known as the United Republic of Tanzania. The nationalization of land and the distribution of three acre plot to the Africans. The Arab land owners were forcibly asked to surrender African land for distribution it to the majority blacks. About 10,000 Arabs more than one-fifth were expelled from the island. It brought dignity to Africans. As a result of the revolution the ruling class of Zanzibaris ceased to exist in the island, Africans were treated as equal citizens with all rights like the of Arabs. Free education and health care to all the people with out segregation posts in government civil service previously monopolized by arabs or Asians were opened up to Africans; and the wages of the lowest-paid workers were increased sometimes as much as three times. Scientific socialism was introduced in Zanzibar which brought some social development. The revolutionary council turned to communist countries particularly to East Germany and China. Problem of development were tackled more vigorously than they had been under the easy regime of British. The formation of parastatal enterprises e.g., The peoples’ Bank of Zanzibar, The state fuel and power corporation, BIZANJE-The corporation which had the responsibility of managing the import trade and distribution of essential commodities such as food textile building materials and other capital and commerce goods, The Zanzibar state trading corporation [ZSTCJ which had the responsibility of managing the export trade in cloves, coconuts, and other primary products. It brought majority rule in Zanzibar where by the majority Africans were able to take over the political control of the island. Racial segregation ended and brought unity to all the masses without any sort of segregation. COLONIAL DOMINATION AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE NAMIBIA. Namibia then called South West Africa was first colonized by Germany up to the end of first world war after which it was handed over to South Africa from 1919 at the Versailles Treaty peace treaty .As it happened in many other Africans countries the inhabitants of Namibia ware mainly; Nama, Herero, and Ovambo did not accept foreign domination so easily. The Nama and Herero were farmers they resisted against German in 1904 -7 but even before that, they did not succeed because of internal disunity. After world war one Namibia remained officially united nation Trust territory, though occupied and ruled by South Africa ever since the southern army had conquered the Germany colonialist in 1915. but south African government reused refused to honor terms of the trust and prepare the country for independence. It treated largely-desert territory of Namibia (South West Africa) as a fifth province of South Africa aüd applied to her people all oppressive legislation of apartheid. Politically characterized movements were first observed in 1957 when Harman Taivo Jo Tolvo from the Ovambo land People Organization [O.P.O]. It was aimed at achieving better working conditions; it gave rise to the beginning of more powerful and political conscious party. The South-West African peoples’ organization [S.W.A.P.O] In 1960 SWAPO began a long campaign of guerilla activities against the occupying forces of South Africa . Since then SWAPO have been playing a big role up to the attainment of independence in 1990 after three decades of struggle. WHY DID IT TAKE LONG FOR SWAPO TO SUCCEED UNLIKE OTHER POLITICAL PARTIES IN AFRICA SUCH AS TANU, MPLA, UPC? Imperialists’ interest over the country e.g. Namibia was the chief producer of uranium as the important source of nuclear fuel, Namibia was made a home of capitalist investment of the big powers Britain and U.S.A. South Africa based mining companies systematically stripped the country of its vast natural minerals resources, that were very significant in developing the capitalist nations of Europe and USA, thus reluctance in granting independence to Namibia. The question of SWAPO liberation movement organizing its guerrilla warfare from exile [under Sam Nujoma] has been another problem for the independence of the nation it brought disunity among the masses which delayed the struggle of independence in Namibia. The presence of Cuban troops in Angola to keep peace. South Africa used that as an excuse to continue staying in Namibia that she could not withdrew her troops from Namibia due to the threats of Cuban troops that may take over Namibia to a communist state, so South Africa has been insisting on conducting election under her own supervision. The presence of opposition parties such as the Turnholla Democratic alliance whose members were whites and their African puppets, were a big obstacle in the path of independence for Namibia. U.N weakness to force South Africa out of Namibia, as it was always differed by VETO power of 5 permanent members like USA, Britain and France. Most of them had economic interests in the colony. Nature an4 character of colonialism in Namibia. It was under Germany and then latter alone given to British South Africa under the supervision of United Nations This made it difficult for the nationalist to have consistency in their struggle. Tribalism, there was no effective strong political party for Africans that would champion peaceful means. Failure of imperialist powers to observe the united nations economic sanctions against the illegal white minority rule led by Ian Smith. LIBERATION IN SOUTH AFRICA. Freedom and democracy in South Africa are the impact of life that has been fought for by Africans inside and outside South Africa for long time. However the attainment of freedom in South Africa had remained at a remote Like most of the colonies that had white settlers the road to independence was not all smooth. In South Africa white settlers were 4 million by 1970 who ruled the majority blacks who were 20 million and the mixed race of the Asian race origin were 2 million, the black majority were not allowed to vote by 1936 for fear of dominating political aspect of South Africa South Africa was the most powerful nation in the continent economically socially and politically that strength originated from mineral revolution of 1 87Oand 1 880s given that prosperity the white minority were more than ready not to let the black major to take over power. In 1 950s they established an apartheid policy which literally mean separateness that would keep the black away from dominance of South African politics they remained in reserves known as Bantustan they were only free when serving white in urban centre , the policy reduced the life style of the African blacks. The population registration act of 1950 registered people according to their race dividing them basically into white and non white under the old imperial principle of divide ad rule non white were sub divided into colored (mixed race) Indians who came as contractors in the sugar plantation at Natal in the l9 century and the ‘Bantu’ who were the black majority population. The blacks were then further divided into further sub groups basing on ethnic origin Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, Venda, Sotho and so on this was deliberate move to weaken African unity and destroy any African national sense of nationalism, it kept each ethnic group separate from another this act formed the corner stone of the apartheid policy affecting all the life style of the black people banning sexual relation among the races and prohibiting them from public places like bus parks, schools, hospitals, etc all black African trade unions activity were banned thus enabling the white to exploit the African as they wished this was an economic system to keep the black at the position of permanent subordinate of low — paid working class. Such state of affair provided stimulus to African protest and resistance in South Africa. There was a wave of resistance to new pass laws, a number of spontaneous strikes boycotts and demonstrations in the towns the ANC (African national congress) which had been formed in 1912 by the educated African elites of teachers’ clerks, and lawyers was boosted by the new leader of Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo and Trade unionist Walter Sisulu. In 1952 ANC staged a ‘defiance campaign’ deliberately defying apartheid segregationist laws and refusing to carry passes. On 21 march 1 960 police opened fire on un armed black demonstrators killing 69 and wounding 180 most of them short behind as they fled, this was known as the Sharpeville massacre which marked a new phase in the struggle for freedom. Fearing a revolution the government swiftly banned the ANC party and many members of the party were arrested and jailed. The ANC resorted to the use of armed struggle as the way forward. WHY SOUTH AFRICA TOOK LONG TO GAIN HER INDEPENDENCE The presence of imperialist investment in South Africa had continues cooperation between big capitalist powers ever since which included powers like Dutch and British with the apartheid regime of South Africa so they were not willing to grant independence to African easily. Lack of unity among the nationalist organization .There were many movements working independently, they included the Indian National Congress [IAC], African people organization [APO], Pan African Congress [PAC] UMSA, ANO ,and Inkatha Freedom Movement. These except ANC were less radical they could not bring any impact but rather weakened the strength of the struggle South Africa was the country that was recognized by UN to be independent country from 1980 . But the fact was that because both political and economic power were in the hands of whites ,worse still there was apartheid that did not able the African excess to economic power the blacks were denied democracy All liberation movements like ANC and PAC were declared illegal and banned in South Africa by the apartheid regime of the white. The killing of prominent political activities like mass killing in Sharpeville and the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela also made the struggle for independence to delay. Methods of struggle were weak initially, until 1960s ANC and PAC were using non violent based on Mahatma Gandhi philosophy e.g. demonstrations petition strikes and boycotts .It was until 1960 after the Sharpeville massacre that ANC formed UMKONTO WE SIZWE meaning the spear of the nation and adopted violence. The big powers of western Europe feared that an independent south Africa may fall in the hands of Russia a communist nation this was because Mozambique and Angola who ere geographically near South Africa had the elements of communism opposed to the situation. Thus the struggle lacked international support of the big capitalist countries. On addition to the above the constant indiscriminant attacks earned out by the racist white regime of South Africa destabilized the activities of national struggle of the black Africans, their major purpose was to kill the nationalists of the blacks and destroy their political parties. Economic constraints most of the black African were pushed in the reserves of Bantustan were economic activity were very hard the land was barren no infrastructures to facilitate the activities of the movement thus it took long to achieve their independence. Some capitalist countries who were pro the racist regime of south Africa denied economic aid to front line states i.e. those states that were ready to support the struggle of liberation in South Africa which included Tanzania Kenya Zimbabwe among others. The possession of Namibia by South Africa racist regime, which was used by her as naval base and harbored the American French and British military men, hindered the military wing of the nationalistic movement. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN THE SETTLER PORTUGUESE DOMINATED COLONIES. Portugal had three colonies in Africa which included; Angola, Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, and Mozambique. These countries attained their independence late as compared to other African countries; the Portuguese government was therefore determined not to give independence to these nations because were seen as vital props to the Portuguese economy. Also the Africans of the Portuguese colonies were equally determined to win there independence thus prolonged guerrilla struggle began throughout the Portuguese colonies the lead was taken by a smallest colony of Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde, led by Amilcar Cabral, he founded the (P.I.G.C) portido africano, da independence da guinea Cabo Verde in 1956 but He was assassinated in January 1976 only two years after the independence of 1974. In Angola Agustino Neto led guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese after founding M.P.L.A (Movemento popular de libertagao de Angola) in December 1956 in Luanda among the working class, and were able to get there independence in 1975. The struggle for Mozambique was led by Eduardo Mondlane and his deputy Samora Machel after founding FRELIMO (Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique) found in 1962 in the capital of Tanzania Dar- es- salaam they declared war officially in September 1964. WHY LATE INDEPENDENCE FOR PORTUGUESE COLONIES? Poor/weak economic base of Portugal. She was the poorest country among the colonialists, she had not Under gone industrial revolution, therefore she regarded the heavily depended on her colonies for economic prosperity at home that is why she was very reluctant at granting independence to her colonies, which she viewed like committing economic suicide The Portugal colonial policy Portugal regarded her colonies s overseas provinces since Portugal was a small nation, she was very interested to acquiring more oversea land whereby they could stay forever and obtains raw materials exploit market for their goods and settlement of surplus population. Settlers opposed the granting of independence to the Africans .The number of settlers were in big in numbers in many Portuguese colonies with high investment in agriculture and other economic ventures in the colonies. They therefore feared economic losses once the black majority takes over power The Portuguese exploited the Africa maximally as to support their economy in the metro pole such as, imposed harsh taxes like dog, tax poll tax, this was great economically to them that’s why they hesitated to grant independence to the African early like other European nation. Land alienation .All African fertile land was taken and known as crown land, it was confiscated for the construction of infrastructures, establishment of colonial economies establishment of white plantation, and this was too precious to them to give independence to the African easily. Mass illiteracy. Many Portuguese were illiterate and hence conservative and ignorant of what was taking place outside world .Other European nations had changed their way of exploitation to neo-colonialism. Since Portuguese were short sighted they never dreamt of granting independence to their colonies soon, such situation prompted the use of armed struggle for the African as a means to get their independence. WHY WAS IT NECESSARY FOR THE NATIONALISTS TO FIGHT FOR MAJORITY RULE THROUGH ARMED STRUGGLE IN ZIMBABWE Zimbabwe was a British settler colony. The constitutional of 1923 gave special political power to the minority white settlers at the expense of the Africans majority .Throughout the colonial period the minority white settlers used various efforts to establish political dominance, e.g. Creation of central African federation 1953 to 1963 with the intention of placing Malawi and Zambia under political and control of white minority settlers of Zimbabwe to hinder nationalism. In November 1965 Ian Smith, leader of new white Rhodesia front party, a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI).He thereby illegally declared white-ruled Rhodesia to be independent state, free from any British colonial control. The British government protested but little effective action was taken to stop it. It was clear to the leaders of ZANU that their, commitment to armed struggle was indeed the only way forward. The international community declared a policy of economic sanctions against the illegal Smith regime. But South Africa and Portugal colonies like Mozambique ignored the instruction and continued to trade with Zimbabwe even British multinational oil companies secretly continued to trade with Rhodesia. WHY LIBERATION CAME THROUGH GUN? Land alienation by the British colonialist that were given to the white settlers and the African remained with totally nothing for there live hood apart from supplying cheap -labor in the white settler plantations Zimbabwe whites declared U.D.I 1965 by Ian Smith this left the black majority with no any other alternative apart from using armed struggle. Forced labor to work in the white plantation this humiliated the African very much that made them to use armed forces to fight it. Richness of Zimbabwe, especially in minerals and rich agricultural land which attracted whites and made them not willing to grant independence to the African, thus application of armed struggle. Failure of whites to agree to the peaceful means, to grant independence to the African. Taxation also prompted the black majority to use force as the way to stop the excessive taxation system of the colonialists. Imperialist powers supported the whites’ minority over the black majority. Tribalism, there was no effective strong political party for Africans that would champion peaceful means. Failure of imperialist powers to observe the united nations economic sanctions against the illegal white minority rule led by Ian Smith. LIBERATION THROUGH ARMED FORCES IN KENYA. The struggle for independence in Kenya after the Second World War was difficult. All peaceful attempts and diplomatic methods had failed to regain their alienated land .Attempts by the young kikuyu associations had all failed. British thinking about its colonial policy in Kenya was complicated further by the presence of settlers, it considered that some alternative should be found to the normal one-man one-vote democracy; if not the white settlers were not sure of their future in case the majority African take political power, the white settlers suggested multiracial type of constitution No doubt that the kikuyu people had exceptional grievance to strike a rebellion at that particular time, one of the major reason for that was the fact that their number had grown steadily throughout the colonial period and yet their land into which they would have expanded on was occupied by settlers. In face of land shortage large number of Kikuyu was driven to seek inadequately paid jobs in towns or else in European farms. In towns many were unemployed and took to living by crime. These poverty stricken and land-hungry people looked with understandable envy and resentment upon the settlers This led to the outbreak of MAUMAU which was guerilla warfare 1951 .It started with the murder of few British farmers their cattle were mutilated and doing other acts of violence. All these act of violence were intended to instill such terror into the settler community that most would leave the country. The colonial government responded by arresting Jomo Kinyatta and other well-known Kikuyu leaders. They were charged for organizing the revolts and condemned to long terms of imprisonment. The absence of Kinyatta from the scene did not affect the resistance, the Mau-Mau remained active and resorted to impenetrable bases in mountain Kenya and Nyandarua range. From these forests they ventured forth in small bands in the dead of night to swoop on outlying farms, to attack the soldiers who had been sent against them, and very frequently to take bloody reprisals against fellow Kikuyu suspected of co-operating with the colonial government. At the end of 1955 the back of the uprising had been broken at the cost of 20 million pounds and some hundred British lives. CAUSES OF MAU - MAU. Taxation, land alienation and forced labor annoyed Africans this was seen as total humiliation of the white against the Africa blacks. Who became squatters on their own land most of them ended up going in urban centers were they were unemployed and living on crimes Missionary interference in kikuyu traditions such as female genital mutilation, and indoctrination of western values like religion, education. While condemning the African traditions and culture as satanic practice that are not permitted to God Depriving Africans the right to grow cash crops, which only the white settlers were given the monopoly role to grow and market such cash crops leaving African with to provide cheap and V manual labor in European plantations. The role of the returned soldiers who could not find jobs which they were promised when they were taken in the Second World War. The presence of Kenya setters who thought Kenya was their .permanent territory. Were not willing to let Kenya go into the hands of the black African political leaders, such sentiment prompted the Kikuyu people to up guns Kenya eventually got her independence in l963 under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta of KANU, becoming the last country in East Africa to get her independence. KANU provided a country with the ruling group of great ability. Within a year of independence the opposition party KADU had gone into voluntary dissolution, its members deciding either to retire from politics or to join the ruling ranks. But it proved impossible to maintain the structure of one party-state. In O1966 Ogiga Odinga after Kenyatta the most powerful politician broke with his old associate and formed a new political party the Kenya peoples’ union. He opposed Kikuyu domination in the politics, him being Luo many his followers were his tribesmen. He also opposed KANU ideological approach of handling the Kenyan problems. he favored the radical approach. In sharp contrast to situation in Tanzania the Kenya government policy had encouraged the growth of a class of local capitalists whose new acquired wealthy contrasted sharply with the poverty of the high growing unemployed urban population. That was-the starting point of Kenyan income inequality. GENERAL PROBLEMS FACED DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN AFRICA The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence. Some European nations came in Africa to stay for ever and regarded their African colonies as oversea provinces, thus they were very reluctant to grant independence this was mostly on Portuguese colonies like Mozambique, Angola. The colonial state apparatus ware very oppressive and coercive to the nationalistic movements in many Africa nations these included colonial army, police and judicially/prison which were put in place to facilitate colonial production, e.g. in 1958 Nyerere was arrested, Kenyatta was also arrested in I954, Mutesa of Buganda was exiled to Britain. Also there was lack of political structures to mobilize the people to the common struggle for independence; in rural areas most of the political parties lacked branches which would have been used as centers to create awareness and mobilization of the masses most of the nationalistic activities centered in urban areas. Tribalism also was a problem in for the nationalistic struggle it brought disunity and weakened the nationalistic struggle for independence. Some tribes did not participant in national struggle in steady they involved secessionist politics, e.g. Buganda in Uganda which demanded for her separate independence at the expense of the entire nation of Uganda. The low level of education also affected the struggle for independence many masses in Africa were not educated and lacked political awareness about the essence of their independence this was a big hindrance in the path of independence since most of the indigenous did not know the significance of the struggle. Financial problem to meet their expenditure, nationalistic movement in Africa lacked clear source of funds since most of their members were financially sick to fund the activities of the struggle like mobilization for support from the masses for independence. Poor infrastructure especially in up country, during the movement of the nationalistic to mobilize support and sensitizing the masses about their aim it was very difficulty to penetrate in other regions during rainy season like southern Tanzania, because there was no railway roads ports etc. Internal disputes and insecurity also brought a hindrance in the way of independence e.g. tribal wars regional imbalance The policy of divide and rule that were established by the colonialist played a big role in making African not united some Africans were favored while others were not cared by the colonialist this made national struggle very difficulty. A religious difference was also another problem .e.g. For Tanganyika to attain her independence the AMNUT all Muslim national union of Tanganyika. Were not willing Tanganyika to be given their independence until a Muslim candidate is graduated to take over the government. The colonial tactics to divide and rule, that kept African divided were always at loggerhead that kept them divided along tribal lines e.g. the Gandas in Uganda were favored to other tribes that made the Ganda to be reluctant to support the struggle for independence
No comments:
Post a Comment